By Alexander E. Hopkins
2015, Vol. 7 No. 04 | pg. 1/6 | »
CiteReferencesPrint
IN THIS ARTICLE
- Ontological Assumptions of Face Management Theory
- Symbolic Interactionism Theory
- Social Exchange Theory (SET)
- Goffman's Research on Face and Facework Strategies
- Ting-Toomey's Face Negotiation Theory
- Epistemological Assumptions
- Conceptualizing Embarrassment
- Research on Embarrassment
- Research on Face Negotiation Theory
- Underlying Axiological Assumptions
- Advantages of Face Management Theories
- Disadvantages of Face Management Theories
- Future Research
- References
KEYWORDS
Keywords:Communication Face Management Theory Social Interaction Social Relationships Embarrassment
The beginning of any social relationship is often ambiguous (Edelmann, 1985, p. 195). If a social interaction proves to be troublesome, conflict may occur. While conflict is an inevitable facet of life, it is not necessarily a negative phenomenon (Oetzel, Ting-Toomey, Yokochi, Masumoto, & Takai, 2000, p. 398). To ensure that any social interaction develops smoothly, it is important to examine how people negotiate meaning within the relationship. Thus, the sociological concept of "face" comes into play. Face is the positive social value that a person claims for themselves in the context of a social interaction (Cupach & Metts, 2008, p. 206; Oetzel et al., 2000, pp. 398-399; Dainton, 2010, p. 58). Since a conflict will often contradict a person's idealized face, the main question thus becomes how people negotiate faces with one another during a troublesome social interaction (Sharkey, 1992, p. 257).
By their very nature, disagreements are often more complex than agreements because of the sheer number of social variables involved (Holtgarves, 1992, p. 148). Once the social variables are identified, they become the unwritten "rules" of a social interaction that, if broken, may cause a relationship to dissolve (Hodgins, Liebeskind, & Schwartz, 1996, p. 300). Likewise, the identification of these variables can help save face, regardless of whether the conflict was triggered purposely or inadvertently (Manusov, Kellas, & Trees, 2004, pp. 514-515).
This paper is divided into three sections. The first section focuses on the underlying ontological assumptions of face management theories, including face, facework, politeness and face negotiation. Ontology is the study of being and is therefore critical to examining how face negotiation theory developed. Although the concept of face is as old as human existence, the identification of the concepts and variables describing face is relatively recent.
The second section focuses on epistemological assumptions of the theory. Epistemology questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, as well as the extent to which knowledge pertinent to any given subject of entity can be acquired. In this section, prior research on face management theories will be analyzed. The research will be examined chronologically by topic, as opposed to a thematic organization. Since theories within face management build upon one another, it is important to differentiate between the concept and the theory to prevent confusion.
Finally, the third section focuses on the axiological assumptions of face management theory. Axiology is the study of value and remains important because, without a way to show the theory's importance in the world, the theory would likely languish. As we will see, this theory has proven immensely useful to people all over the world. Yet, the theory is not without its disadvantages, which mainly stems from research gaps that need to be addressed. With this in mind, a framework can be developed to examine further research on the theory.
Ontological Assumptions of Face Management Theory
Symbolic Interactionism Theory
The identification of the face concept can be traced to George Herbert Mead, who created the Symbolic Interactionism theory just prior to his death in 1931. Symbolic Interactionism posits that our daily routine of interactions are not spontaneous creations of our own making. Rather, they are "symbolic enactments" that reflect our knowledge of cultural rituals. With this knowledge, people can coordinate their behavior and create meaning amongst one another (Cupach & Metts, 2008, p. 204). This proved to be one of the main tenets of face negotiation theory because people are raised in cultures and use that upbringing to socialize with other people.
Social Exchange Theory (SET)
In 1958, George Homans created the Social Exchange theory, which posits that people are self-interested entities who attempt to maximize their own social profits. When interacting with other people, a person can attempt to shape others' behaviors to their own liking by offering or withholding certain social rewards (Sharkey, 1992, pp. 258-259). Social exchange theory's main assumption consists of the minimax principle, which posits that personal relationships are a function of comparing benefits to costs and to attaining the former. A secondary assumption is that human beings are selfish by their very nature (Dainton, 2010, p. 63). SET implicitly acknowledged the concept of face because face theories recognize that everyone is interested in maintaining and protecting face.
Social exchange theory breaks down this cost-benefit ratio matrix through its three core components. First, the outcome of a relationship is the result of whether those costs were worth the benefits. In face theories, the outcome is the motivation to maintain a particular face in the first place. Second, the comparison level represents what rewards a person expects to receive in a particular relationship. The outcome and comparison levels act together to determine whether the face was effective or not. Third, the comparison level of alternatives recognizes that the act of just determining one's satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) with a relationship is still not enough to predict whether the relationship will continue or end (Dainton, 2010, pp. 63-65). The comparison level of alternative is a broad, "catch all" term that recognizes that there are other influential variables. While this decreases the simplicity of the theory, it also acts as a way to encourage future research on the subject of SET.
In the end, SET recognizes that people want to ensure that all their social interactions proceed smoothly for favorable social relationships.
Goffman's Research on Face and Facework Strategies
Perhaps the most influential researcher who defined the concept of face was Erving Goffman. Face, according to Goffman (1956), is ‘‘the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact" (p. 268). Goffman believed that all people have a face and it was their goal to put forth the most positive images of themselves in public (Cupach & Metts, 2008, p. 203-206). He also recognized the verbal and non-verbal functions of face in interpersonal interactions. Goffman believed that people would perform a set of verbal and non-verbal acts to show their understanding of both the situation and the people within the situation (Bylund, Peterson & Cameron, 2012, p. 264). This expanded upon SET's comparison level of alternative because Goffman labeled these "catch all" variables as socially-negotiated between the people and the situation.
Throughout the course of his research, Goffman wanted to answer two questions: (1) why and how people construct their public images and (2) the strategies people use to maintain or restore their own or others' images if those images are lost or threatened (Cupach & Metts, 2008, pp. 203-204). To answer these questions, Goffman (1967) defined facework as "the actions taken by a person to make whatever he is doing consistent with face" (p. 12). Facework was grouped into two categories: preventative and corrective. Preventative facework is used to decrease the likelihood of a face-threatening act from occurring, while corrective facework is used after a threat to face has occurred (Brackett, 2000, p. 349; Dainton, 2010, pp. 59-60). Further, there are two ways in which one can lose face: being in the wrong face to begin with and the inability to put forth an expected image (Cupach & Metts, 20008, pp. 206-207).
When the loss of face cannot be avoided, Goffman (1967) used the term "ritual disequilibrium" to describe the phenomenon (p. 19). During this time, there are four sequences of events. First, there could be a spoken or implied challenge to call attention to the misconduct. Second, there could be an offering to show other people that the offending person acknowledges their behavior violated expectations for maintaining the face of themselves or others. Two examples of this could include a direct apology or downplaying the severity of the offense. Third, there could be an acceptance of the offering as sufficient to restore face. Fourth, there could be a thanks from the offending person for the other people that accepted his or her poor performance. One pass-through of this four-part sequence is often sufficient to resolve a face- threatening act, but at other times, multiple passes may be required (Cupach & Metts, 2008, p. 208).
Facework recognizes that no single strategy is appropriate for all events (Cupach & Metts, 2008, p. 210). This is important because this allows the facework to be integrated into virtually every face-threatening situation imaginable. For example, using humor at a funeral to save face may not be the best strategy when the overwhelming emotion is somberness. Even then, facework is not without its critics. Cavanagh, Dobash, Dobash & Lewis (2001) have argued in their research on domestic partner violence that facework can twist logic by turning a morally-reprehensible situation into something morally-acceptable (p. 700).
Goffman first defined threats to face in 1956 he researched embarrassment, one of the most common face threats. Embarrassment proved to be fertile ground for research, as it is common, relatively harmless and will usually integrate disruptions to face and facework strategies. Goffman suggested that embarrassment is the result of a disrupted interaction in which a person fails to maintain their desirable social identity (Miller, 1987, p. 1061). Goffman identified two types of stigmas: (1) discreditable stigmas, which are not obvious or immediately recognizable and (2) the discredited stigma, which is immediately recognizable (Brackett, 2000, p. 349).
Goffman (1967) further defined expressive order to describe the idea that people generally support each other's face presentation (p. 22). This idea is not entirely surprising, since we cannot expect other people to cooperate in the protection of our own faces if we are not willing to do the same for them (Cross & Stone, 1964, p. 3; Cupach & Metts, 2008, p. 206; Holtgarves, 1992, p. 142). Likewise, an individual could never expect to gain a public reputation without the public taking a chance on them. Goffman (1963) himself believed that the notion of people managing their responses, as well as the responses of others, implied a conscious awareness of something in need of face management (p. 118). Therefore, it is a reasonable assumption for people to develop the strategies to achieve management (Cavanagh, Dobash, Dobash & Lewis, 2001, p.700).
Embarrassment occurs when a person or group fails to put on the appropriate face for an audience. There are two types of embarrassment: (1) Primary embarrassment is the immediate response to an embarrassing event while (2) secondary embarrassment is the response to one's overt embarrassment (Edelmann, 1985, p. 205). Embarrassment is a contagious phenomenon and people, especially in large group coordination, would want to avoid a "domino effect" of embarrassment if at all possible (Cross & Stone, 1964, p. 2; Silver, Sabini & Parrott, 1987, p. 57). This stems from two important research studies. First, Miller (1987) found that two causal mechanisms in the expressive order are empathy and sympathy (pp. 1061-1063). Second, Sharkey's (1992) found that most people are willing to follow social norms without thinking about it (p. 258). Cross & Stone (1964) believed that people, by their nature, are flexible and want to give most people the benefit of the doubt (pp. 12-13).
It is important to note that Goffman (1967) did not consider embarrassment to necessarily be a bad phenomenon (pp. 10-11). Embarrassment itself is simply an acknowledgement that some standard(s) have not been met. The pressure associated with embarrassment suggests that a person would likely not want to experience the phenomenon again. When a person chalks the unfortunate event to experience, this can be the best teacher for an individual who prefers an experiential education. Expressive order adds to this by acknowledging that people are social creatures that want to help each other when in need. As such, future relationships can be built to ensure that embarrassment does not occur again.
Thus, since facework involves the negotiation of a situation, a person's face is not necessarily innate (Holtgarves, 1992, p. 142; Oetzel, Ting-Toomey, Masumoto, Yokochi, 2001, p. 235). Goffman would likewise say that, because we use strategies to negotiate face, these strategies are learned as we grow up in normal social interactions (Cupach & Metts, 2008, p. 208). Goffman (1959) used the concept of drama in a theatrical performance to illustrate social interactions, writing that a person's performance "serves to influence in any way any of the participants" (p. 22). He believed that a person's performance was divided into two functional parts: (1) the front region consists of everything seen (setting, the props and the characters) and (2) the back region consists of everything unseen, including the rooms for performance preparation (Cupach & Metts, 2008, pp. 205-206). The back region is particularly important because a face-threatening act can occur if someone spots us "out-of-face" while we are preparing to put on our public face (Cupach & Metts, 2008, pp. 205-206).
During a person's outward "in-face" performance, they will elicit two types of messages: (1) verbal messages, which are used "admittedly and solely to convey the information that he and the others are known to attach to these symbols" and (2) non-verbal messages, which "have little concern or control, being chiefly derived from the expressions he gives off" (Goffman, 1959, pp. 2-7). Since a person is more in control of their verbal messages, the audience will often pay attention to the person's non-verbal messages to discern the true meaning behind the message. While a theatrical performance may sound too artificial for daily life, it is not upon closer analysis (Brackett, 2000, pp. 348-349). Students, for example, get dressed, bring a notebook and a pencil to class. Thus, like a daily routine, one is not judged on the content of the routine but, rather, how well they play the part (Silver, Sabini & Parrott, 1987, pp. 47-48). Getting dressed appropriately, bringing books and taking notes not only "looks the part," but it is also a functionally-conducive to success in the classroom.
In contrast to Brown & Levinson, Goffman had four tactics associated with accounts: denial, blame, minimization and reduced competence. Goffman's view of denial was that it often occurred at the beginning of a relationship and would cloud the issue at hand to make the issue seem completely-different. Denial is a broad-ranging strategy because it can also introduce the possibility for the offender to claim that they do not remember the incident (Cavanagh, Dobash, Dobash, & Lewis, 2001, pp. 700). Blame is similar to denial in the sense that the offender denies any claim to blame. However, unlike denial, the issue is more macroscopic in scope. The offender, for example, can blame a negative event on a larger issue, such as age or gender discrimination. Therefore, like denial, blame can cloud the issue and perhaps even "normalize" the issue (Cavanagh, Dobash, Dobash, & Lewis, 2001, p. 704). Blame also has a personal element in that the offender can blame their negative behavior on, for example, their violent early familial upbringing.
Goffman viewed minimization as a way to reject terms like "instigator" or "antagonist" for the offending party. Offending parties could defend their actions, comparing it to more extremely-negative actions committed by other parties. Likewise, offending parties could defend their actions by, for example, claiming that their face-threatening act is a part of their identity or was acquired through their career training (Cavanagh, Dobash, Dobash, & Lewis, 2001, p. 706). Reduced competence blames the face-threatening act on a lack of awareness or a lack of training. Goffman (1971) detailed the issue when he wrote: "…there are pleas that claim reduced responsibility by virtue of reduced competence, the understanding being that although the actor is guilty of something it is guilt from being incompetent and not guilt for the specific deed" (p. 111). Research by Cavanagh, Dobash, Dobash, & Lewis (2001) found examples of reduced competence, including men drinking too much alcohol or men having anger issues.Continued on Next Page »
1 2 3 4 5 6
Next »
CiteReferencesPrint
Argyle, M., Furnham, A., & Graham, J. A. (1981). Social situations. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Baxter, L. A. (1984). An investigation of compliance-gaining as politeness. Human Communication Research, 10, 427-456.
Brackett, K.P. (2000). Facework strategies among romance fiction readers. Social Science Journal, 37, 347-360.
Brett, J. (2000). Culture and negotiation. International Journal of Psychology, 35 (2), 97-104.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: some universals in language usage. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, R., & and Gilman, A. (1989). Politeness theory and Shakespeare's four major tragedies. Language in Society, 18, 159-212.
Buss, A. H. (1980). Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman.
Bylund, C., Peterson, E. B., & Cameron, K. A. (2012). A practitioner’s guide to interpersonal communication theory: An overview and exploration of selected theories. Patient & Education Counseling, 87, 261-267.
Caplan, S. E., & Samter, W. (1999). The role of facework in younger and older adults’ evaluations of social support messages. Communication Quarterly, 47, 245–264.
Cavanagh, K., Dobash, R.E., Dobash, R.P., & Lewis, R. (2001). Remedial work: Men's strategic responses to their violence against intimate female partners. Sociology, 35, 695- 714.
Chang, H. C., & Holt, G. R. (1994). A Chinese perspective on face as inter-relational concern. In S. Ting-Toomey (Ed.), The challenge of facework: Cross-cultural and interpersonal issues (pp. 95–132). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Chiappini, F. (2005). Asian business discourse(s). Bern, Germany: Peter Lang.
Clackworthy, D. (1996). Training Germans and Americans in conflict management. In M. Berger (Ed.) Cross-cultural team building: Guidelines for more effective communication and negotiation (pp. 91–100). London: McGraw-Hill.
Cross, F., & Stone, C. P. (1964). Embarrassment and the analysis of role requirements. American Journal of Sociology, 70, 1-15.
Cupach, W. R., Metts, S., & Hazleton, V. (1986). Coping with embarrassing predicaments: Remedial strategies and their perceived utility. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 5, 181-200.
Cupach, W. R., & Metts, S. (1990). Remedial processes in embarrassing predicaments. In J. A.
Anderson (Ed.), Communication on yearbook 13 (pp. 323-352). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Cupach, W. R., & Imahori, T. (1993). Managing social predicaments created by others: A comparison of Japanese and American facework. Western Journal of Communication, 57, 431–444.
Cupach, W. R., & Metts, S. (2008). Face theory: Goffman's dramatistic approach to interpersonal communication. In L. Baxter & D. Braithwaite (Eds.),Engaging theories in interpersonal communication: Multiple perspectives(pp. 203-214). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.
Dainton, M. (2010). Explaining theories of interpersonal communication. In Dainton, M., & Zelley, E. D., Applying communication theory to professional life (pp. 55-76). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.
Edelmann, R. (1985). Social embarrassment: An analysis of the process. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 2, 195-213.
Edelmann, R. (1987). The psychology of embarrassment. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Elsayed-Ekhouly, S. M., & Buda, R. (1996). Organizational conflict: A comparative analysis of conflict style across cultures. International Journal of Conflict Management, 7, 71–81.
Fernandez, D., Carlson, D., Stepina, L., & Nicholson, J. (1997). Hofstede’s country classification 25 years later. Journal of Social Psychology, 137 (1), 43-54.
Fink, E. L., & Walker, B. A. (1977). Humorous responses to embarrassment. Psychological Reports, 40, 475-485.
Gao, G. (1998). An initial analysis of the effects of face and concern for “other” in Chinese interpersonal communication. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22, 467– 482.
Gao, G., & Ting-Toomey, S. (1998). Communicating effectively with the Chinese. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Goffman, E. (1955). On face-work: An analysis of ritual elements in social interaction. Psychiatry, 18, 213-231.
Goffman, E. (1956). Embarrassment and social organization. American Journal of Sociology, 62 (3), 264-271.
Goffman, E. (1959).The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Anchor Books.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Touchstone.
Goffman, E. (1967).Interaction ritual: Essays in face to face behavior. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Goffman, E. (1971).Relations in public. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Gonzales, M. H., Pederson, J. H., Manning, D. J., & Wetter, D. W. (1990). Pardon my gaffe: Effects of sex, status, and consequence severity on accounts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 610-621.
Hall, E. T., & Hall, M. R. (1990). Understanding cultural differences: Germans, French, and Americans. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Hamilton, V. L., & Hagiwara, S. (1992). Roles, responsibility, and accounts across cultures. International Journal of Psychology, 27, 157-179.
Hodgins, H.S., Liebeskind, E., & Schwartz, W. (1996). Getting out of hot water: Facework in social predicaments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 300-314.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill.
Holtgarves, T., & Yang, J.N. (1990). Politeness as universal: Cross-cultural perceptions of request strategies and inferences based on their use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 719-29.
Holtgarves, T. (1992). The linguistic realization of face management: Implications for language production and comprehension, person perception, and cross-cultural communication. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55, 141-159.
Humphreys, L. (2005). Cell phones in public: Social interactions in a wireless era. New Media & Society, 7, 810-833.
Keller, L. and Richey, K. (2006). The importance of corporate brand personality traits to a successful 21st century business. Journal of Brand Management, 14 (1/2), 74-81.
Knapp, M. L., & Daly, J. (2011). Background and current trends in the study of interpersonal communication. In M. L. Knapp & J. Daly (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication (pp. 3-24). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Leech, G.N. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman
Manusov, V., Kellas, J.K., & Trees, A.R. (2004). Do unto others? Conversational moves and perceptions of attentiveness toward otherface in accounting sequences between friends. Human Communication Research, 30, 514-539.
Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253.
McLaughlin, M. L., Cody, M. J., & O'Hair, H. D. (1983). The management of failure events: Some contextual determinants of accounting behavior. Human Communication Research, 9, 208-224.
Metts, S., & Cupach, W.R. (1989). Situational influence on the use of remedial strategies in embarrassing predicaments. Communication Monographs, 56, 151-162.
Miller, L. C., Cody, M. J., & McLaughlin, M. L. (1994). Situations and goals as fundamental constructs in interpersonal communication research. In M. L. Knapp & G. R. Miller (Eds.) Handbook of interpersonal communication (2nd ed.) (pp. 162–198). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Miller, R. S. (1987). Empathic embarrassment: Situational and personal determinants of reactions to the embarrassment of another. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1061-1069.
Modigliani, A. (1971). Embarrassment, facework, and eye contact: Testing a theory of embarrassment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 15-24.
Morisaki, S., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1994). Face in Japan and the U.S.. In S. Ting-Toomey (Ed.), The challenge of facework: Cross-cultural and interpersonal issues (pp. 47–94). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Oetzel, J., Ting-Toomey, S., Yokochi, Y., Masumoto, T., & Takai, J., (2000). A typology of facework and behaviors in conflicts with best friends and relative strangers.Communication Quarterly, 48 (4), 397-419.
Oetzel, J., Ting-Toomey, S., Masumoto, T., Yokochi, Y. et al. (2001). Face and facework in conflict: a cross-cultural comparison of China, Germany, Japan, and the U.S.. Communication Monographs, 68, 235-258.
Oetzel, J.G. and Ting-Toomey, S. (2003). Face concerns in interpersonal conflict: A cross- cultural empirical test of the face negotiation theory. Communication Research 30 (6), 599-624.
Petronio, S. (1984). Communication strategies to reduce embarrassment: Differences between men and women. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 48, 28-38.
Sattler, J. M., (1965), A theoretical, developmental, and clinical investigation of embarrassment. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 71, 19-59.
Schlenker, B. R. (1980). Impression management: The self-concept, social identity, and interpersonal relations. Monterey CA: Brooks/Cole.
Schlenker, B. R., & Darby, B. W. (1981). The use of apologies in social predicaments. Social Psychology Quarterly, 44, 271-278.
Schonbach, P. (1980). A category system for account phases. European Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 195-200.
Schonbach, P. (1985). A taxonomy of account phases: Revised, explained, and applied. Berichte aus der Arbeitseinheit [Report From the working unit]. Bochum, West Germany: Ruhr- Universitat.
Scott, M.B,. and Lyman, S. (1968). Accounts. American Sociological Review, 33, 46-62.
Semin, G.R., & Manstead, A.S.R. (1982). The social implications of embarrassment displays and restitution behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 12, 367-377.
Sharkey, W. F., & Stafford, L. (1990). Responses to embarrassment. Human Communication Research, 17, 315-342.
Sharkey, W.F. (1991). Intentional embarrassment: Goals, tactics, and consequences. In W. R. Cupach and S. Metts (Eds.), Advances in interpersonal communication research, 1991 (pp. 105-128). Proceedings of the Western States Communication Association Interpersonal Communication Interest Group. Normal, IL: Personal Relationships Research Group, Illinois State University.
Sharkey, W.F. (1992).Use and responses to intentional embarrassment.Communication Studies, 43(4),257-275.
Silver, M., Sabini, J., & Parrott, W. G. (1987). Embarrassment: A dramaturgic account. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 17, 47-61.
Slugoski, B.R., & Turnbull, W. (1988). Cruel to be kind and kind to be cruel: Sarcasm, banter, and social relations. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 7, 101-21.
Stamp, G. H. (2004). Theories of family aelationships and a family relationships theoretical model. In A. L. Vangelisti (Ed.), Handbook of family communication (pp. 1-30). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ting-Toomey, S., & Kurogi, A. (1998). Facework competence in intercultural conflict: An updated face negotiation theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22, 187–225.
Tinsley, C. (1998). Models of conflict resolution in Japanese, German, and American cultures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 316-322.
Triandis, H. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Ungar, S. (1981). The effects of status and excuse on interpersonal reactions to deviant behavior. Social Psychology Quarterly, 44, 260-263.
Weinberg, M. S. (1968). Embarrassment: Its variable and invariable aspects. Social Forces, 46, 382-388.
West, R. and Turner, L. (2004). "Face Negotiation Theory" in Introduction Communication Theory Analysis and Application, Second edition. Retrieved from http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0767430344/student_view0/chapter26
Save Citation »(Works with EndNote, ProCite, & Reference Manager)
APA 6th
Hopkins, A. E. (2015). "Face Management Theory: Modern Conceptualizations and Future Directions." Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse, 7(04). Retrieved from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1021
MLA
Hopkins, Alexander E. "Face Management Theory: Modern Conceptualizations and Future Directions." Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse 7.04 (2015). <http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1021>
Chicago 16th
Hopkins, Alexander E. 2015. Face Management Theory: Modern Conceptualizations and Future Directions. Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse 7 (04), http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1021
Harvard
HOPKINS, A. E. 2015. Face Management Theory: Modern Conceptualizations and Future Directions. Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse [Online], 7. Available: http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1021
Alexander E. Hopkins graduated in 2021 with a Masters degree in Communication from Georgetown University in Washington, DC.
More By This Author:
Weight of Evidence Reporting: Pragmatic Optimism or a Bad Idea?
A Framework for Internal Corporate Communications
Effects of the "Spiral of Silence" in Digital Media
Government Public Relations: Public Diplomacy or Propaganda?
Commencement Addresses Delivered by Incumbent U.S. Presidents, 1914-2010: A Historical Analysis
From the Inquiries Journal Blog
Related Reading
» Interpersonal Relationships
The Effect of Technology on Face-to-Face Communication
Psychology » Relationships
Social Networking Sites and Romantic Relationships: Effects on Development, Maintenance, and Dissolution...
» Social Networking
A Content Analysis of Celebrity Instagram Posts and Parasocial Interaction
» Social Media
The Invisible Become Visible: An Analysis of How People Experiencing Homelessness Use Social Media
Monthly Newsletter Signup
The newsletter highlights recent selections from the journal and useful tips from our blog.
Suggested Reading from Inquiries Journal
» Interpersonal Relationships
The Effect of Technology on Face-to-Face Communication
Recent technological advancements have had a drastic impact on the way individuals communicate. In this research, previous studies were analyzed, field observations were conducted, and an online survey was administered to determine the level of engagement individuals have with their cell phones, other technologies and with each... MORE»
Advertisement
Psychology » Relationships
Social Networking Sites and Romantic Relationships: Effects on Development, Maintenance, and Dissolution of Relationships
The evolution of social media sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc., have changed the way we look at relationships. Social networking sites have become a popular place to meet and connect with other people. They... MORE»
» Social Networking
A Content Analysis of Celebrity Instagram Posts and Parasocial Interaction
Instagram allows users to share a snapshot of their lives with a mass audience in a matter of seconds. This capability and power has not gone unnoticed by celebrities, who are highly aware of the impact their social media accounts have on fans and the relationships they create. The purpose of this study is to find fan engagement... MORE»
» Social Media
The Invisible Become Visible: An Analysis of How People Experiencing Homelessness Use Social Media
This research examined how people experiencing homelessness use the social media platforms of blogs, Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn. Through 15 interviews at a day shelter in a central North Carolina city, the author discovered... MORE»
Inquiries Journal provides undergraduate and graduate students around the world a platform for the wide dissemination of academic work over a range of core disciplines.
Representing the work of students from hundreds of institutions around the globe, Inquiries Journal's large database of academic articles is completely free. Learn more | Blog | Submit
Latest in Business & Communications
Political Communication
2021, Vol. 13 No. 09
Covering Climate Change: A Sentiment Analysis of Major Newspaper Articles from 2010 - 2020
By Amy M. Patronella
This research lies at the nexus of political communication theory relating to emotional affect and political processing and the burgeoning field of sentiment analysis. News coverage can affect opinion both through the information it provides and... Read Article »
Climate Change The Media Political Communication Environmental Politics
Human Resources
2021, Vol. 13 No. 06
Industrial Safety: Factors that Present Barriers to Reporting Workplace Incidents and Contribute to Cultures of Non-Reporting
By Rana M. Van Tuyl
This research study explores factors that present barriers to reporting workplace incidents and contribute to cultures of non-report. The research purpose was to explore human, workplace/organizational, and external factors identified by industrial... Read Article »
Industrial Safety Safety Culture Workplace Culture Human Resources
Technology
2016, Vol. 8 No. 11
The Internet of Things: A Look Into The Social Implications of Google Glass
By Kelly N. Widerschein
In its beta release, Google Glass was positioned as a groundbreaking technology - a glimpse into a future that has long been promised in science fiction. It was met with media fanfare and consumer interest, despite costing more than most PCs on... Read Article »
Technology Virtual Reality Internet Of Things Wearable Tech Digital Privacy Google
New Media
2016, Vol. 7 No. 1
Models of Internet Monetization
By David Perell
Published by Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications
Predicting the future of the news industry begins with understanding the history of newspapers and the current news delivery landscape. Because the Internet has brought fundamental shifts to news distribution, successful organizations of the future... Read Article »
Media New Media Online Advertising Business Models News Media Monetization
Social Networking
2016, Vol. 7 No. 1
A Content Analysis of Celebrity Instagram Posts and Parasocial Interaction
By Janabeth Ward
Published by Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications
Instagram allows users to share a snapshot of their lives with a mass audience in a matter of seconds. This capability and power has not gone unnoticed by celebrities, who are highly aware of the impact their social media accounts have on fans and... Read Article »
Parasocial Interaction Instagram Celebrity Gratification Theory Social Networking Social Media
2016, Vol. 7 No. 1
How YouTube Developed into a Successful Platform for User-Generated Content
By Margaret Holland
Published by Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications
Since its development, YouTube, the world's third most popular online destination, has transformed from a video-sharing site into a job opportunity for content creators in both new and mainstream media. Based on content analysis, the study examined... Read Article »
YouTube User-Generated Content Personal Branding Content Creators Viewership Social Networks New Media
Social Media
2016, Vol. 7 No. 1
Yoga On Instagram: Disseminating or Destroying Traditional Yogic Principles?
By Skyler Cowans
Published by Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications
Today, more than 15 million Americans practice yoga, making the ancient Indian discipline synonymous with the Western society's culture of wellness. As a way to market themselves, practitioners and instructors of yoga have utilized Instagram &ndash... Read Article »
Yoga Instagram Social Media Personal Health Popular Culture
PrintCiteShare +References
Page Top Next Page »
- Call for Submissions - +